Lexical Semantics and New Testament Word Studies

“Semantics” is one of those $10 words many of us are tempted to ignore. But do you know what it means?

In the field of linguistics—another expensive-sounding word that, in simple terms, refers to the study of language—semantics is the study of meaning: the meaning of words, phrases, and sentences. The branch of semantics that deals specifically with the meaning of individual words is called lexical semantics.

So, when you perform a New Testament word study, you are operating in the field of New Testament lexical semantics.

Make sense?

Understanding what individual words meant in the New Testament is tremendously important if we are going to understand the meaning of words, phrases, sentences, paragraphs, and entire contexts. Determining a word’s meaning requires a considerable amount of research and an equally substantial amount of reflection upon the evidence.

Don’t let that intimidate or discourage you. You can do it.  But make no mistake—it takes real effort.

The Semantic Center and Semantic Range

Words, themselves, are symbols referring to something and our minds picture that “something” when considering the word.  For example, the word “flower” refers to a real flower and when we hear the word, our mind pictures a flower.  But I have found that words have what I refer to as a “semantic center.” By that, I mean a word’s core or central meaning when it is unaffected or uninfluenced by other words or by a larger context—as if the word existed in a vacuum, so to speak. 

Have you ever thought about words in that way?

Once a word is affected by other words or by its context—when it is used in a phrase, sentence, paragraph, or larger context—it may take on an applied or affected meaning that is marginally, or even substantially, different from its semantic center.

These various applied or affected meanings make up what we might call a word’s “range of meaning,” or its semantic range.  This is often what you find in a dictionary.

Let me give you a simple illustration using a common English word.

Have you ever considered the meaning of the English noun “train”? Here is a summary of the definitions supplied by the Merriam-Webster dictionary (https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/train):

1. A connected line of railroad cars, with or without a locomotive
2. An automotive tractor with one or more trailer units
3. A retinue or suite of a person of rank or consequence
4. A moving file of persons, vehicles, or animals
5. The luminous tail or trail of a meteor or comet
6. An orderly succession
7. A sequence of events or actions leading to some result or goal
8. A series of moving mechanical parts, such as gears, that transmit and modify motion
9. A part of a gown that trails behind the wearer
10. A line of combustible material laid to lead fire to a charge
    
    

What this dictionary has supplied are actually applied or affected meanings of the word “train” as is often the case with dictionaries.  In other words, these definitions illustrate its semantic range. If you would like to see examples of “train” used in sentences corresponding to these definitions, you can follow the previously mentioned link and examine them for yourself.

This is also similar to what you will find when looking up a Koiné Greek word in a Greek-English lexicon.  Incidentally a lexicon is essentially a vocabulary of a particular language. It is similar to a dictionary, but it is designed specifically for that language. A Greek-English lexicon, therefore, provides information about Greek words, their English equivalents, and often much more.

Sometimes a lexicon will provide information that helps us identify a word’s semantic center. Sometimes it may not.  However, may I suggest that determining a word’s semantic center can be very helpful in understanding its semantic range? And may I recommend that when you embark on a New Testament word study, you work to discover both—the word’s semantic center and its semantic range.

What Is the Core Meaning of “Train”?

So, what would you say is the semantic center of the English noun “train”?

May I suggest that its core meaning, when standing alone, is something akin to “a connection expressed in a procession.”

Here are a few examples of the word in a sentence and how the sentence modifies its meaning while its semantic center remains apparent.

1. “I watched the train for five minutes as it passed the railroad crossing.”
   Here, “train” refers to a line of connected railroad cars pulled by a locomotive, forming a procession.
2. “The train on her wedding dress flowed beautifully across the floor.”
   Here, “train” refers to a section of fabric connected to the wedding gown, forming a procession of fabric, if you will.
3. “In explaining my answer to the teacher, I had to review my train of thought.”
   Here, “train” refers to a procession of connected reasoning leading toward an answer.
4. “The train of people waiting for the newest iPhone stretched around the block.”
   Here, “train” refers to a procession of people connected by their desire to obtain the newest Apple phone.
   
   

When you take the time to contemplate a word’s semantic center and then examine its semantic range, it can help you gain a much better understanding of how that word functions in a particular context and how the context affects its meaning.

Don’t Simply Look Up a Definition

Now, this little exercise is only a simple illustration intended to motivate us to become more thoughtful when considering the meaning of words in general—and Greek words in the New Testament in particular.

It may be fashionable, and certainly convenient, to simply grab a Greek-English lexicon, look up the word you are studying, find the definition that seems to fit the verse you are considering, and then use that definition.

But that approach may not reveal the word’s semantic center. And, more importantly, the definition we select from the lexicon may not actually be the meaning of the word in the particular context we are studying.

Very little reflection may have been given to the word on our part.  Are we relying too much on lexicons to point us in the right direction?  Perhaps.  Are we really taking the time to think through the meaning of a word in a particular verse and context?  Potentially, not.

Ask yourself those questions—and be honest.

Most likely, the summary truth is that you and I have a long way to go in our New Testament lexical-semantic studies.

Would you agree?  I know I do.

So, What Can We Do?

So, what can we do now to improve in this regard?

In my estimation, the answer lies in at least a twofold approach:

1. Take the time to study lexical semantics and how it relates to studying the New Testament.

2. Do more New Testament word studies so that we can improve through practice.

I’ll leave making potential recommendations for accomplishing the first of these for another post on another day.

For now, however, let’s consider a New Testament word and see if we can appreciate some of what is involved in understanding its semantic center and semantic range—in other words, some of what is involved in doing a word study.

For that purpose, may I suggest the word παρακαλέω (parakaleo)?

A Brief Word Study of παρακαλέω

Now, a quick disclaimer.

There is no way we can thoroughly study this word and share the results in a relatively short article. So please do not mistake what follows as the sum total of what a complete word study of παρακαλέω would involve.  Nevertheless, let’s use παρακαλέω to illustrate some of what is involved in a New Testament word study.

Consider Related Words

First, you may want to determine whether there are other words associated with this word that might help you better understand its meaning.

This is where a Bible study tool such as A Cognate Lexicon of the New Testament Greek can be especially helpful. I have reviewed this book in the Bible Study Tools section of this website and I would recommend it for your library.

In addition, you would want access to as many Greek-English lexicons and Bible dictionaries as possible. Your goal is to get to the very heart of what this word means.

Now, using these reference works and potentially others, you would discover that παρακαλέω is a compound word consisting of the preposition παρά (para) and the verb καλέω (kaleo).

You would then want to study what these individual words mean. Of course, this means your study has just become significantly broader. παρά occurs approximately 200 times in the New Testament, while καλέω occurs approximately 147 times.

You would also want to examine cognates associated with the compound word παρακαλέω. Cognates are words that come from the same root, and I will have more to say about them in future articles.  In your investigation, you would find at least three other words worth considering:

• παράκλητος (parakletos) — a noun found 5 times in the New Testament.
• παράκλησις (paraklesis) — a noun found 29 times in the New Testament.
• συμπαρακαλέω (sumparakaleo) — another verb formed by adding another preposition, found 1 time in the New Testament.
  
  

You would then want to examine these words and consider how they are used by the Holy Spirit-inspired writers of the New Testament.  And if that’s not enough, παρακαλέω itself occurs approximately 108 times in the New Testament.

Clearly, we have some work to do!

Determining the Semantic Center

Now, understanding the semantic center of a compound word is admittedly not necessarily cut and dried.  You might think its meaning would simply be the sum of its parts, but that is not automatically the case. We would want to think carefully about it.

In the case of παρακαλέω, however, it turns out that the sum of its parts fairly accurately expresses its semantic center.  παρά, when used in composition, often carries the idea of “beside,” “by,” or “alongside,” while καλέω means “to call.”

We would certainly want to think more deeply about this, but for the purposes of this article, may I suggest that παρακαλέω has a semantic center of:

“to call alongside.”

Okay, assuming that is a reasonable way to express its semantic center, how is the word’s meaning altered when it is affected by context?  The best way to determine this is to examine every occurrence of the word in the New Testament and see for yourself.  In fact, every thorough word study will involve this step. Remember, παρακαλέω occurs approximately 108 times in the New Testament, so this is going to take a while!

A good initial step in this regard, though, is to examine Greek-English lexicons in which lexicographers have done much of this same work and have supplied what they believe are the various affected or applied meanings of the word.  Therefore, we would want to consult multiple lexicons and Bible dictionaries and compare what these scholars have determined.

For the sake of brevity, here are some of the applied or affected meanings suggested by some of these reference works:

1. To invite.
2. To summon to one’s aid; to call for help.
3. To appeal to, urge, exhort, encourage, or admonish.
4. To request, implore, appeal to, entreat, beg, or beseech.
5. To comfort, encourage, cheer up, or strengthen through consolation.
6. To console or conciliate; to speak to someone in a friendly manner.
7. To address or speak to.
8. To combine the ideas of exhorting, comforting, and encouraging.
9. To instruct or teach.
10. To combine encouragement with the alleviation of grief.
    
    

Look at the range of meaning these scholars have assigned to παρακαλέω.  Can one word really have that kind of semantic range?  And if it can, how do we know what it means in any particular passage?  Questions like these are part and parcel of a thorough word study.

How Does “Call Alongside” Become Its Semantic Range?

Okay, let’s do some thinking together.  You will recall that we suggested the central meaning of παρακαλέω is “to call alongside.”  How does that central idea develop into the various meanings scholars have suggested as part of this word’s semantic range?

Have you figured it out?

Greek is a picturesque language in many respects, so let me illustrate how this word can express all of those ideas—and potentially more.

I am a father, and I have sons. As they were growing up, there were times when they needed me. 

Maybe they needed comfort.  Maybe they needed discipline.  Maybe they needed encouragement.  And so on.

How could I provide what they needed?  Here’s how.

When my sons needed me, I could call them to my side and provide whatever they needed (incidentally, calling them to my side may very well involve them coming to me and/or me coming to them).

If they needed comfort, I could παρακαλέω them and give them a hug or words of consolation.

If they needed discipline, I could παρακαλέω them and instruct or discipline them accordingly.

If they needed encouragement, I could παρακαλέω them and exhort them, build them up, and strengthen them.

Can you see how παρακαλέω can express the various meanings suggested above? What did you provide when you called your children, a friend, or a loved one to your side?  Now you are beginning to get a sense of how a word’s semantic center informs us regarding its semantic range.

That is pretty exciting to think about, isn’t it?

Keep in mind, however, that while we may have a good sense of a word’s core meaning—its semantic center—it is the word’s usage in a particular context that determines its applied or affected meaning.  And that is especially important when we are trying to understand what God is communicating through the use of that word.

So, to give you a taste of what is involved in determining the meaning of a word in a particular passage (and, hence, determining its semantic range), let me suggest several New Testament contexts and ask you:

What does παρακαλέω mean here?

To answer that question, you would want to read the immediate context carefully to get a idea of what the word means in that particular passage.  For our purposes, I’ll suggest the context you should read and may also provide a brief summary of the setting to help you along.

Context One: Luke 15:11–32

The Parable of the Two Sons

As Jesus was teaching, tax collectors and sinners drew near to Him to hear Him. The Pharisees and scribes complained, saying, “This Man receives sinners and eats with them.”

Jesus then taught a series of lessons through parables concerning the importance of seeking and saving the lost.

Luke 15:11–32 contains the parable of the two sons.

Take the time to read through the entire parable so you can understand the story Jesus is telling.

In verse 28, the older son is under consideration. He was angry because his father was doing so much for his younger brother who had squandered his possessions after leaving home but had returned as a penitent son.

The verse reads: “But he was angry and would not go in. Therefore his father came out and pleaded with him.”

The word translated “pleaded with” is παρακαλέω.  You tell me.  Did the translators get it right?  What was the father doing when he came out and met his older son?  How would you translate παρακαλέω in this context?

Context Two: Acts 8:26–39

The Ethiopian Eunuch

During the early days of the church, Philip was directed by an angel of the Lord to go to a particular place where he would encounter an Ethiopian eunuch.  The eunuch had gone to Jerusalem to worship and was returning home in his chariot. While riding along, he was reading from the prophet Isaiah. The Spirit directed Philip to go near the chariot.  Philip did so, and after hearing the eunuch reading Isaiah aloud, he ran to him and asked whether he understood what he was reading.

Acts 8:31 states: “And he said, ‘How can I, unless someone guides me?’ And he asked Philip to come up and sit with him.”

The expression translated “he asked” comes from παρακαλέω.  Put yourself in the position of the eunuch. He was trying to understand what he was reading in Isaiah.  Is “he asked” really indicative of what παρακαλέω means in this context?  If not, what would be a better way to express the idea?  And what specifically in the context leads you to this understanding about the meaning of the word here?

Context Three: 2 Corinthians 1:3-7

A Description of God

Instead of developing the setting for you, I would encourage you to read 2 Corinthians—at least 1:1 through 2:2.  In verses 3–7, Paul uses the verb παρακαλέω four times—three times in verse 4 and once in verse 6. He also uses the noun παράκλησις six times in this brief section – once in every verse and twice in verse 6.  Some form of the word occurs ten times in this short passage.

In many English translations, these words are translated with terms such as “comfort” or “consolation.” Many have turned to this section of Paul’s epistle to emphasize that God is the God of all comfort.  But I want you to read and reread this context so that you understand the setting in which Paul shared this inspired communication with the church at Corinth.

Are “comfort” and “consolation” the best words to express what Paul was saying?  If so, why?  If not, what is the applied meaning of παρακαλέω and παράκλησις in this context?  Don’t let the translation you are familiar with influence you, if possible.  Meditate upon this context, think about the sense of “calling alongside” and reflect upon the use of these words.  How would you translate these words?

And these are just three of the contexts wherein we’ll find παρακαλέω (remember, this word is found 108 times in the New Testament).  Detailed students would examine each and every instance and think about its use in those particular contexts.

The Work of a Word Study

Do you see what I’m getting at?

A thorough word study of παρακαλέω involves quite a bit of study and reflection as we strive to understand both the word and the Holy Spirit’s use of that word in communicating God’s will through the first-century inspired writers of the New Testament.

This particular study may take months before the student truly develops a sense of what the word means and how it is used throughout Holy Scripture.

But God deserves that kind of effort from us, doesn’t He?  And moreover, because we desire to know His will, we should want to put in that kind of effort so we get it right and neither misunderstand nor misrepresent our Father.

If you don’t mind the personification, picture the word—or the words—you are studying as friends with whom you desire to spend considerable time so that you can get to know them better.  That is the kind of approach I suggest we should take toward New Testament word studies.

If you would like to learn more about how to conduct a word study or sharpen your skills in this area, I encourage you to come back to The Scripture Student from time to time.  We’ll work together to become better students of the Bible.